Notes for "If My Commercial Makes Fun of My Political Opponent, Do My Race and My Gender Make a Difference?"

¹L. Patrick Devlin, "Political Commercials in American Presidential Elections," in Lynda L. Kaid and Christina Holtz-Bacha, eds., Political Advertising in Western Democracies (Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, Inc., 1995); Karen S. Johnson-Cartee & Gary A. Copeland, Manipulation of the American Voter: Political Campaign Commercials (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1991); Karen S. Johnson-Cartee & Gary A. Copeland, Inside Political Campaigns: Theory and Practice (Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 1997); Karen S. Johnson-Cartee & Gary A. Copeland, Manipulation of the American Voter: Political Campaign Commercials (Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 1997); Bruce Pinkleton, "The Effects of Negative Comparative Political Advertising on Candidate Evaluations and Advertising Evaluations: An Exploration." Journal of Advertising 26 (1997):19-29.; Judith S. Trent & Robert V. Friedenburg, Political Campaign Communication: Principles and Practices, 4th ed. (New York: Praeger, 2000).

²Bruce E. Pinkleton, "Effects of Print Comparative Political Advertising on Political Decision-Making and Participation," Journal of Communication 48 (1998):24-36.

³Johnson-Cartee & Copeland, Inside Political Campaigns: Theory and Practice, 154.

⁴Trent & Friedenburg, Political Campaign Communication: Principles and Practices, 4th ed. (2000), 153.

⁵Trent & Friedenburg, Political Campaign Communication: Principles and Practices, 4th ed. (2000), 150.

⁶David Okeowo & William N. Swain, "Valence Positioning and Increased Media Visibility: Biafra’s and Nigeria’s Wartime Publicity Activities," World Communication 28 (1999):43-56; Jarol B. Manheim & Robert B. Albritton, "Changing National Images: International Public Relations and Media Agenda Setting," American Political Science Review 78 (1984):641-657; Jack Trout & Al Ries, Positioning: The Battle for Your Mind (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981). Okeowo and Swain combined the public relations theoretical propositions of visibility and valence (see Manheim & Albritton) with the advertising theory of positioning (see Trout & Ries) in an analysis of wartime publicity efforts.

⁷Johnson-Cartee & Copeland, Manipulation of the American Voter: Political Campaign Commercials (1997).

⁸James G. Benze & Eugene R. Declercq, "Content of Television Political Spot Ads for Female Candidates," Journalism Quarterly 62 (1985):278-288; David E. Procter, William J. Schenck-Hamlin & Karen A. Haase, "Exploring the Role of Gender in the Development of Negative Political Advertisements," Women and Politics 14 (1994):1-22; Judith S. Trent & Robert V. Friedenburg, Political Campaign Communication: Principles and Practices, 3rd ed. (New York: Praeger, 1995); Judith S. Trent & Teresa Sabourin, "Sex Still Counts: Women’s Use of Televised Advertising During the Decade of the ‘80s," Journal of Applied Communication Research 21 (1993):21-40; Anne J. Wadsworth, Philip Patterson, Lynda L. Kaid, Ginger Cullers, Drew Malcomb & Linda Lamirand, "'Masculine' vs. 'Feminine' Strategies in Political Ads: Implications for Female Candidates," Journal of Applied Communication Research 15 (1987):77-94.

⁹Stuart H. Surlin & Thomas F. Gordon, "How Values Affect Attitudes Toward Direct Reference Political Advertising," Journalism Quarterly 77 (1976):89-98.

¹⁰Leonie Huddy & Nayda Terkildsen, "The Consequences of Gender Stereotypes for Women Candidates at Different Levels and Types of Office," Political Research Quarterly 46 (1993):503-525; Monika L. McDermott, "Voting Cues in Low-Information Elections: Candidate Gender as a Social Information Variable in Contemporary United States Elections," American Journal of Political Science 41 (1997):270-283; Ellen D. B. Riggle, Penny M. Miller, Todd G. Shields & Mitzi M. S. Johnson, "Gender Stereotypes and Decision Context in the Evaluation of Political Candidates," Women and Politics 17 (1997):69-87; Carol K. Sigelman, Lee Sigelman, Barbara J. Walkosz & Michael Nitz, "Black Candidates, White Voters: Understanding Racial Bias in Political Perceptions," American Journal of Political Science 39 (1995):243-265.

¹¹Lee Jussim, Lerifa M. Coleman & Lauren Lerch, "The Nature or Stereotypes: A Comparison and Integration of Three Theories," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 52 (1987):536-456.

¹²Deborah Alexander & Kristi Andersen, "Gender as a Factor in the Attribution of Leadership Traits," Political Research Quarterly 46 (1993):527-545; Riggle, et al., "Gender Stereotypes and Decision Context."

¹³Huddy & Terkildsen, "The Consequences of Gender Stereotypes."

¹⁴Monika L. McDermott, "Race and Gender Cues in Low-Information Elections" Political Research Quarterly 51 (1998):895-918; Sigelman, et al., "Black Candidates, White Voters."

¹⁵Nayda Terkildsen, "When White Voters Evaluate Black Candidates: The Processing Implications of Candidate Skin Color, Prejudice and Self-Monitoring," American Journal of Political Science 37 (1993):1032-1053.

¹⁶Lee Sigelman & Susan Welch, "Race, Gender, and Opinion Toward Black and Female Presidential Candidates," Public Opinion Quarterly 48 (1984):467-475.

¹⁷Wayne Parent, "Race Issues and Political Campaigns in the South," In David D. Permutter, ed., The Manship School Guide to Political Communication, (Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 1999), 269-272.

¹⁸Susan Welch & Lee Sigelman, "A Black Gender Gap?" Social Science Quarterly 70 (1989):120-133.

¹⁹Kim F. Kahn, "Gender Differences in Campaign Messages: The Political Advertisements of Men and Women Candidates for U.S. Senate," Political Research Quarterly 46 (1993):481-502.

²⁰Dianne G. Bystrom, "Candidate Gender and the Presentation of Self: The Videostyles of Men and Women in U.S. Senate Campaigns," Political Communication 13 (1996):487-489; Kathleen H. Jamieson, Eloquence in an Electronic Age (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988).

²¹Anne Johnston & Anne B.White, "Communication Styles and Female Candidates: A Study of the Political Advertising During the 1986 Senate Elections," Journalism Quarterly 71 (1994):321-329; Wadsworth, et al., "'Masculine' vs. 'Feminine' Strategies in Political Ads."

²²Benze & Declercq, "Content of Television Political Spot Ads for Female Candidates."

²³Trent & Sabourin, "Sex Still Counts," 36.

²⁴Trent & Friedenburg, Political Campaign Communication: Principles and Practices, 3rd ed. (1995).

²⁵Trent & Sabourin, "Sex Still Counts."

²⁶Montague Kern & Paige P. Edley, "Women Candidates Going Public: The 30-Second Format," Argumentation and Advocacy 31 (1994):80-95.

²⁷Procter, et al., "Exploring the Role of Gender in the Development of Negative Political Advertisements." The departure of these results from those of other studies reported here could be attributed to differences in the numbers of ads analyzed, to the years from which the ads were taken, to the definitions applied to "negative advertising," and to the categories with which the ads were evaluated.

²⁸Surlin & Gordon, "How Values Affect Attitudes."

²⁹Hong Sik Yu, Meg Lamme, Kelly Lewis, Karen S. Johnson-Cartee & Gary A. Copeland, "Effects of Sex and Ethnicity of Sponsorship of a Humorous Negative Political Advertisement with a White Female Target" (paper presented to the Mass Communication Division of the Southern States Communication Association Convention, New Orleans, LA, April, 2000).

³⁰Sigelman, et al., "Black Candidates, White Voters."

³¹Johnson-Cartee & Copeland, Manipulation of the American Voter: Political Campaign Commercials (1991).

³²Benze & Declercq, "Content of Television Political Spot Ads for Female Candidates"; Trent & Friedenburg, Political Campaign Communication: Principles and Practices, 3rd ed. (1995); Trent & Sabourin, "Sex Still Counts."

³³Surlin & Gordon, "How Values Affect Attitudes."

³⁴Alexander & Andersen, "Gender as a Factor"; Huddy & Terkildsen, "The Consequences of Gender Stereotypes"; Riggle, et al., "Gender Stereotypes and Decision Context."

³⁵Dolf Zillmann "Disparagement Humor," in Paul E. McGhee and Jeffrey H. Goldstein , eds., Handbook of Humor Research, Vol. 1 (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1983), 85-107.

³⁶John T. Cacioppo & Richard. E. Petty, "Effects of Message Repetition and Position in Cognitive Response, Recall, and Persuasion," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (1979):97-109; Herbert E. Krugman, "Why Three Exposures May Be Enough," Journal of Advertising Research 12 (1972):11-14.

³⁷Yu, et al., "Effects of Sex and Ethnicity."

³⁸Benze & Declercq, "Content of Television Political Spot Ads for Female Candidates"; Surlin & Gordon, "How Values Affect Attitudes"; Trent & Friedenburg, Political Campaign Communication: Principles and Practices, 3rd ed. (1995); Trent & Sabourin, "Sex Still Counts."

³⁹Bystrom, "Candidate Gender and the Presentation of Self"; Jamieson, Eloquence in an Electronic Age; Johnston & White, "Communication Styles and Female Candidates."; Kahn, "Gender Differences in Campaign Messages"; Procter, et al., "Exploring the Role of Gender in the Development of Negative Political Advertisements"; Wadsworth, et al., "'Masculine' vs. 'Feminine' Strategies in Political Ads."

⁴⁰Alexander & Andersen, "Gender as a Factor"; Huddy & Terkildsen, "The Consequences of Gender Stereotypes"; Riggle, et al., "Gender Stereotypes and Decision Context."

⁴¹Johnson-Cartee & Copeland, Manipulation of the American Voter: Political Campaign Commercials (1991).

⁴²Devlin, "Political Commercials in American Presidential Elections"; Johnson-Cartee & Copeland, Manipulation of the American Voter: Political Campaign Commercials (1991); Johnson-Cartee & Copeland, Manipulation of the American Voter: Political Campaign Commercials (1997); Pinkleton, "The Effects of Negative Comparative Political Advertising"; Pinkleton, "Effects of Print Comparative Political Advertising."

⁴³Johnson-Cartee & Copeland, Manipulation of the American Voter: Political Campaign Commercials (1991); Pinkleton, "The Effects of Negative Comparative Political Advertising."

⁴⁴Yu, et al., "Effects of Sex and Ethnicity."

⁴⁵Trent & Friedenburg, Political Campaign Communication: Principles and Practices, 4th ed. (2000).

⁴⁶Johnson-Cartee & Copeland, Manipulation of the American Voter: Political Campaign Commercials (1997).

⁴⁷Johnson-Cartee & Copeland, Manipulation of the American Voter: Political Campaign Commercials (1997).

⁴⁸Pinkleton, "The Effects of Negative Comparative Political Advertising"; Pinkleton, "Effects of Print Comparative Political Advertising."