²Gamson, "News as Framing."

³L.B. Becker, "Foreign Policy and Press Performance," Journalism Quarterly 54 (Summer 1977):364-368; N.O. Berry, Foreign Policy and the Press: An Analysis of The New York Times' Coverage of U.S. Foreign Policy (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1990); C. Cassara, "Presidential Initiatives and Foreign News Coverage: The Carter Human Rights Policy's Effect on U.S. Coverage of Central and South America," (paper presented at the annual meeting of AEJMC, Washington, DC, August 10-13, 1989, ERIC document # ED 312642); T.-K. Chang, "The News and U.S.-China Policy: Symbols in Newspapers and Documents," Journalism Quarterly 65, (Summer 1988):320-27; T.-K. Chang, The Press and China Policy: The Illusion of Sino-American Relations, 1950-1984 (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1993); T.-K. Chang, P.J. Shoemaker, and N. Brendlinger, "Determinants of International News Coverage in the U.S. Media," Communication Research 14 (August 1987):396-414; D. Hallin, "Hegemony: The American News Media from Vietnam to El Salvador—A Study of Ideological Change and its Limits," in David L. Paletz, ed., Political Communication Research (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1987) 3-25); J. Ramaprasad, "Foreign Policy and Press Coverage: A Study of the New York Times Coverage of India from 1973 to 1980" (Ph.D. diss., Southern Illinois University, 1984); S. Welch, "Vietnam: How the Press Went Along," The Nation 213 (No. 7, 1971):327-330.

⁴E.g., Chang, "The News and U.S.-China Policy"; Chang, The Press and China Policy; Welch, "Vietnam: How the Press Went Along."

⁵E.g., M.-L. Wang, "Who is Dominating Whose Ideology: New York Times Reporting on China," Asian Journal of Communication 2 (1991):51-69; S. Wang, "Factors influencing Cross-National News Treatment of a Critical national Event: Comparative Study of Six Countries' Media Coverage of the 1989 Chinese Student Demonstrations," in Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, 1991, ERIC document # ED 336796.

⁶Entman, "Toward Clarification of a Fractured Paradigm."

⁷Goffman, Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience.

⁸W.A. Gamson, as cited in M.-L. Hsu, "Packaging the News: Propaganda Model Revisited and the Implications for Foreign Affairs Coverage," (paper presented at the annual meeting of ICA, Dublin, Ireland, June 24-28, 1990). ERIC document # ED 320550.

⁹Gamson, "News as Framing."

¹⁰G. Tuchman, Making News: A Study in the Construction of Reality (New York: Free Press, 1978), 192.

¹¹Entman, "Framing U.S. Coverage of International News."

¹²Entman, "Toward Clarification of a Fractured Paradigm."

¹³M. Parenti, Inventing Reality: The Politics of the Mass Media (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1986).

¹⁴A. Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks of Antonio Gramsci (New York: International Publishers, 1971).

¹⁵Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks, 32.

¹⁶Hallin, "Hegemony."

¹⁷M. Fishman, Manufacturing the News (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980), 51.

¹⁸E.S. Herman and N. Chomsky, Manufacturing Consent (New York: Pantheon Books, 1988).

¹⁹H. Gans, Deciding What's News (New York: Pantheon Books, 1979), 149.

²⁰Welch, "Vietnam: How the Press Went Along."

²¹Becker, "Foreign Policy and Press Performance."

²²G. Tuchman, "Making News by Doing Work: Routinizing the Unexpected," American Journal of Sociology 79 (July 1973):110-131.

²³Hsu, "Packaging the News."

²⁴Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1949), 520.

²⁵Public Papers, 421.

²⁶G. Wang, "The People's Daily and Nixon's Visit to China," in A. Arno and W. Dissanayake, eds., The News Media in National and International Conflicts (London: Westview, 1984).

²⁷Chang, "The News and U.S.-China Policy," 320.

²⁸Berry, Foreign Policy and the Press, xi.

²⁹H. Harding, A Fragile Relationship: The United States and China Since 1972 (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1992).

³⁰Chang, "The News and U.S.-China Policy"; Entman, "Framing U.S. Coverage"; Entman, "Toward Clarification of a Fractured Paradigm."

³¹R.G. Picard, Media Portrayals of Terrorism: Functions and Meaning of News Coverage (Ames: Iowa State University, 1993).

³²J.C. Merrill, The Elite Press (New York: Pitman Publishing, 1968); G.H. Stempel III, "The Prestige Press Covers the 1960 Presidential Campaign," Journalism Quarterly 38 (Spring 1961):157-163; G.H. Stempel III, "The Prestige Press in Two Presidential Elections," Journalism Quarterly 42 (Winter 1965):15-21; R.P. Weber, Basic Content Analysis , 2nd. ed. (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1990).

³³Wang, "Who is Dominating Whose Ideology."

³⁴R.W. Budd, R.K. Thorp, and L. Donohew, Content Analysis of Communications (New York: Macmillan, 1967).

³⁵Chang, The Press and China Policy.

³⁶M. Ryan, and D. Owen, "A Content Analysis of Metropolitan Newspaper Coverage of Social Issues," Journalism Quarterly 53 (Winter 1976):634-40.

³⁷C. McDougall, Interpretative Reporting (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1972), 50.

³⁸Harding, A Fragile Relationship; B.B. Conable Jr., J.C. Whitehead, D.M. Lampton, and A.D. Wilhelm Jr., United States and China Relations at a Crossroads (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1995); T.A. Metzger and R.H. Myers, Greater China and U.S. Foreign Policy: The Choice Between Confrontation and Mutual Respect (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 1996).

³⁹Cassara, "Presidential Initiatives."

⁴⁰Chang, Shoemaker, and Brendlinger, "Determinants of International News Coverage."

⁴¹Chang, "The News and U.S.-China Policy."

⁴²R.C. North, O. Holsti, M.G. Zaninovich, and D.A. Zinnes, Content Analysis: A Handbook with Applications for the Study of International Crisis (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1963).

⁴³R.W. Budd, "U.S. News in the Press Down Under," Public Opinion Quarterly 28 (Spring 1964):39-56.

⁴⁴Ryan and Owen, "A Content Analysis."