| 1 Goerge
J. Syzybillo and Ronald F. Hartenbaum, "Political Advertising and
the Broadcast Media," Journal of Advertising 5 (1976): 42-46,
52.
2 Stephen
Ansolabehere and Shanto Iyengar, Going Negative: How Political Advertisements
Shrink and Polarize the Electorate (NY: The Free Press, 1995), 109-110.
3 Ansolabehere
and Iyengar, Going Negative, 110-111.
4 "Feisty
Harry Decried Admen Who Meddled with Politics," Advertising Age
44:4 (January 1, 1973).
5 Syzybillo
and Hartenbaum, "Political Advertising and the Broadcast Media,"
42.
6 L. Patrick
Devlin, "Contrast in Presidential Campaign Commercials of 1996,"
American Behavioral Scientist 40 (August 1997): 1058-1084.
7 L. Patrick
Devlin, "Contrast in Presidential Campaign Commercials of 1996."
8 Larry
Sabato, The Rise of Political Consultants: New Way of Winning Elections
(NY: Basic Books, 1981), 165-166.
9 Sharyne
Merrit, "Negative Political Advertising: Some Empirical Findings,"
Journal of Advertising 13 (1984): 27-38.
10 Louis
Sandy Maisel, Parties and Elections in America: the Electoral Process
(NY: Random House, 1986), 137-138.
11 Michael
Burgoon and Michael D. Miller, "An Expectancy Interpretation of Language
and Persuasion," in Recent Advances in Language, Communication,
and Social Psychology, ed. H. Giles and R.N. Clair (London: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates, 1985), 199-229.
12 Burgoon
and Miller, "An Expectancy interpretation of Language and Persuasion,"
199.
13 Michael
Pfau, Roxanne Parrott and Briget Lindquist, "An Expectancy Theory
Explanation of the Effectiveness of Political Attack Television Spots:
A Case Study," Journal of Applied Communication Research 20
(August 1992): 235-253.
14 Burgoon
and Miller, "An Expectancy Interpretation of Language and Persuasion,"
200.
15 Pfau
et al., "An Expectancy Theory Explanation of the Effectiveness of
Political Attack Television Spots: A Case Study."
16 Burgoon
and Miller, "An Expectancy interpretation of Language and Persuasion."
17 Ibid.,
200.
18 Charles
J. Stewart, "Voter Perception of Mud-slinging in Political Communication,"
Central States Speech Journal 26 (1975): 279-286; Stuart Surlin
and Thomas Gordon, "How Values Affect Attitudes toward Direct Reference
Political Advertising," Journalism Quarterly 54 (1977): 89-98;
Gina M. Garramone, "Voter Responses to Negative Political Ads,"
Journalism Quarterly 61 (1984): 250-259; Merrit, "Negative
Political Advertising."
19 Gina
M. Garramone, Charles K. Atkin, Bruce E. Pinkleton and Richard T. Cole,
"Effects of Negative Political Advertising on the Political Process,"
Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 34 (1990): 299-311.
20 Ansolabehere
and Iyengar, Going Negative, 116.
21 Ibid.,
11.
22 Richard
J. Lutz and John L. Swasy, "Integrating Cognitive Structure and Cognitive
Response Approaches to Monitoring Communication Effects," Advances
in Consumer Research 6 (1977): 363-371.
23 Peter
L. Wright, "The Cognitive Processes Mediating Acceptance of Advertising,"
Journal of Marketing Research 10 (1973): 53-62.
24 Wright,
"The Cognitive Processes Mediating Acceptance of Advertising."
25 Merrit,
"Negative Political Advertising," 29.
26 Ibid.
27 Ibid.
28 R.
Dale Wilson and Aydin Muderrisoglu, "An Analysis of Cognitive Responses
to Comparative Advertising. Advances in Consumer Research 7 (1979):
566-571.
29 Wilson
and Muderrisoglu, "An Analysis of Cognitive Responses to Comparative
Advertising," 571.
30 Merrit,
"Negative Political Advertising," 29.
31 Stewart,
"Voter Perception of Mud-slinging in Political Communication";
Merrit, "Negative Political Advertising" ; Garramone, "Voter
Responses to Negative Political Ads."
32 Garramone,
"Voter Responses to Negative Political Ads."
33 As
cited in Merrit, "Negative Political Advertising," 29.
34 Spencer
F. Tinkham and Ruth Ann Weaver-Lariscy, "A Diagnostic Approach to
Assessing the Impact of Negative Political Television Commercials,"
Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 37 (1993): 377-399.
35 Michael
Basil, Caroline Schooler and Byron Reeves, "Positive and Negative
Political Advertising: Effectiveness of Ads and Perceptions of Candidates,"
In Television and Political Advertising. Vol. 1. Psychological Process,
ed. Frank Biocca (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum,1991), 245-262.
36 Ansolabehere
and Iyengar, "Going Negative," 10.
37 Ansolabehere
and Iyengar, "Going Negative," 13.
38 Ansolabehere
and Iyengar, "Going Negative," 13.
39 Garramone,
"Voter Responses to Negative Political Ads," 250.
40 Linda
Lee Kaid and John Boydston, "An Experimental Study of the Effectiveness
of Negative Political Advertisements," Communication Quarterly
35 (1987): 193-201.
41 Garramone
et al., "Effects of Negative Political Advertising on the Political
Process," 301
42 Garramone,
"Voter Responses to Negative Political Ads."
43 As
cited in Karen S. Johnson-Cartee and Gary A. Copeland, Negative Political
Advertising: Coming of Age (New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,
1991), 14.
44 Johnson-Cartee
and Copeland, Negative Political Advertising, 18.
45 As
cited in L. Patrick Devlin, "Contrasts in Presidential Campaign Commercials
of 1988," American Behavioral Scientist 32 (1989): 407.
46 Richard
R. Lau, "Negativity in Political Perception," Political Behavior
4 (1982): 353.
47 Johnson-Cartee
and Copeland, Negative Political Advertising, 15.
48 Tinkham
and Weaver-Lariscy, "A Diagnostic Approach to Assessing the Impact
of Negative Political Television Commercials," 394.
49 Johnson-Cartee
and Copeland, Negative Political Advertising, 30.
50 Johnson-Cartee
and Copeland, Negative Political Advertising, 16.
51 Garramone,
"Voter Responses to Negative Political Ads," 251.
52 Ibid.,
250.
53 Gina
M. Garramone, "Effects of Negative Political Advertising: the Roles
of Sponsor and Rebuttal," Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic
Media 29 (1985): 147-159.
54 Garramone,
"Voter Responses to Negative Political Ads"; Stewart, "Voter
Perception of Mud-slinging in Political Communication."
55 As
cited in Garramone, "Effects of Negative Political Advertising: the
Roles of Sponsor and Rebuttal," 148.
56 Stewart,
"Voter Perception of Mud-slinging in Political Communication,"
282.
57 Surlin
and Gordon, "How Values Affect Attitudes toward Direct Reference Political
Advertising."
58 Garramone,
"Voter Responses to Negative Political Ads," 252.
59 Ibid.,
258.
60 Ibid.
61 Merrit,
"Negative Political Advertising," 37.
62 Robert
J. Lavidge and Gary A. Steiner, "A Model of Predictive Measurements
of Advertising Effectiveness," Journal of Marketing 25 (Octber
1961): 60.
63 Stephen
B. Ash and Chow-Hou Wee, "Comparative Advertising: A Reiveiw with
Implication for Future Research," Advances in Consumer Research
10 (1982): 372.
64 Ibid.
65 Ibid.
66 Esther
Thorson, William G Christ, and Clarke Caywood, C, "Effects of Issue
and Image Strategies, Attack and Support Appeals, Music, and Visual Content
in Political Commercials," Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic
Media 35 (1991): 465-486.
67 As
cited in Thorson et al., "Effects of Issue and Image Strategies, Attack
and Support Appeals, Music, and Visual Content in Political Commercials,"
483.
68 Lau,
"Negativity in Political Perception."
69 Garramone,
"Voter Responses to Negative Political Ads"; Merrit, "Negative
Political Advertising."
70 Garramone,
"Voter Responses to Negative Political Ads."
71 Merrit,
"Negative Political Advertising."
72 Garramone,
"Voter Responses to Negative Political Ads," 259.
73 Surlin
and Gordon, "How Values Affect Attitudes toward Direct Reference Political
Advertising."
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