²Margaret Foegen Karsten, Management and Gender (Westport, CT: Quorum Books, 1994), 12-13.

³Ardyth Sohn, Christine Ogan and John Polich, Newspaper Leadership (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1986), 45-46.

⁴Terri Schultz-Brooks, "Getting There: Women in the Newsroom," Columbia Journalism Review (March/April 1984), 25-31; Jeff Pundyk, "AP's $2 million denial," Washington Journalism Review (September 1983), 13-14; and Sohn, Ogan, and Polich, Newspaper Leadership, 46.

⁵Judy Mann, "Women, Men and Media: Keeping Score and Pushing for Change," The Professional Communicator (Winter 1990), 25.

⁶Kristin McGrath, "Women and Newspapers," Newspaper Research Journal 14 (Spring 1993), 95-109.

⁷Linda deLaubenfels Russman, "Are Women Newsworthy?" The Professional Communicator (Summer 1991), 25-26, 33; Marilyn Greenwald, "The Portrayal of Women in Newspapers: A Meta-Analysis," AEJMC convention, Boston, 1991; "Other Studies Confirm Women's Low Visibility," The Professional Communicator (Winter 1990), 11; American Society of Newspaper Editors and the Women, Men and Media project, "About and By Women," April 1990; Women, Men and Media, "Where are Women in the Media?" report (April 10, 1989). Content studies of news magazine and television news show similar numbers. For example, Junior Bridge, "The Year of the Woman?" The Professional Communicator (Winter 1992), 19, 25; "Women as Correspondents," The Professional Communicator (Winter 1990), 11; "Study Shows News Magazines Ignore Women," Women in Communications, Inc. news release, October 1990.

⁸Mann, 1990, 11.

⁹Scott S. Whitlow, "Women in the Newsroom: A Role Theory View," Journalism Quarterly 56 (Summer 1979), 378-383; Jean Gaddy Wilson, "Opinions Differ on Why Progress Lags for Women News Managers," ASNE Bulletin (January 1988), 16-17.

¹⁰Kay Robinson, "Women Newspaper Managers and Coverage of Women" (Master's thesis, Michigan State University, 1991).

¹¹Marilyn S. Greenwald, "Gender Representation in Newspaper Business Sections," Newspaper Research Journal 11 (winter 1990): 68-74.

¹²Almost every study on women in newspapers, including the data in the present one, notes that smaller-market newspapers are more likely to have women managers than large-market ones. See for example, studies reviewed by and results of Susan Holly, "Women in Management of Weeklies," Journalism Quarterly, 56 (winter 1979): 810-815.

¹³deLaubenfels Russman, 1991. See also Bridge's results on women in news magazines in The Professional Communicator, Winter 1992, 19, 23; and "Study Shows News Magazines Ignore Women," Women in Communications News Release, Nov. 1, 1991.

¹⁴Kay Mills, "New Perspectives, Different Voices and Better Newsrooms," The Quill, April 1989, 22-24.

¹⁵McGrath, 1993.

¹⁶Eaton, 1979; Jean Gaddy Wilson, "Future Directions for Females in the Media," Communications at the Crossroads: The Gender Gap Connections, Ramona R. Rush and Donna Allen, eds. (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1989), 161.

¹⁷Wilson, "Future Directions," 161.

¹⁸Reconciling data between studies and articles was sometimes difficult because, for example, a study conducted in 1978 used the previous year's data (1977), which would be published sometimes the year after the study (1979). Thus, dates (years) and results were not always consistent in different publications, and method information was sometimes omitted. However, these figures are all from Jean Gaddy Wilson, "Women Make Up 13 Percent of Directing Editors at Dailies," ASNE Bulletin, January 1988, 15-17.

¹⁹Dorothy Jurney, "Percentage of Women Editors Creeps Upward to 11.7--But Other Fields Continue to Progress Faster," ASNE Bulletin, January 1986, 8-11.

²⁰Facts About Newspapers 93, (Reston, VA: Newspaper Association of America, 1993), 25.

²¹Facts About Newspapers 1997, (Reston, VA: Newspaper Association of America, 1997), 29.

²²The procedure used here follows recommendations from Leslie Kish, Survey Sampling (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1965). The percentages, means and variances of the two strata (1949 dailies with women as editor and/or publishers, and all other dailies) are adjusted by assigning a weight that represents the proportion of the total population made up by the samples.

²³Editor & Publisher yearbooks carry information from the previous year. The ones used for this study were Editor & Publisher: The Fourth Estate 1950 International Year Book (New York: Editor & Publisher, 1950); 1960 Editor & Publisher International Yearbook (New York: Editor & Publisher, 1960); 1970 Editor & Publisher international Yearbook (New York: Editor & Publisher, 1970); and 1980 Editor & Publisher International Year Book (New York: Editor & Publisher, 1980).

²⁴Wilson, "Opinions," 1988.

²⁵In 1949, an average of .43 second- and third-level positions per newspaper filled with indeterminable people were found. This was 12 percent of the positions. This dropped to .37 (6 percent) in 1959, to .24 (3 percent) in 1969, and to .16 (2 percent) in 1979. Three possibilities exist for these indeterminable names. First, they could more or less be randomly distributed among males and females, second, they could be predominantly male; or third, they could be predominately female. The third possibility was ruled out because a notable number of cases with initials were identified with traditionally males names somewhere else in the Editor & Publisher listing for the newspaper (At smaller newspapers, the same person will often hold multiple positions.) and because as the percentage of names with initials declined, the number of female names in second- and third-level management positions remained about the same.

²⁶The percentages and means for the two strata were adjusted based on the proportion of the population within each stratum. Statistical inference was based only on the variance of the random sample because the purposeful sample from 1949 has no sampling error; it is a census of the substratum. In addition, the variance was adjusted based on the finite population correction (fpc). The usual formulas for variance are based on an infinite population. When the population is small enough that a sample makes up more than 20 percent of the population, the variance needs adjustment based on the fpc formula, fpc=l-n/N, where n is the sample size and N is the population size. See Kish, 1965.

²⁷Another difference was that dailies in 1949 with a woman editor or publisher tended to have smaller circulations and fewer management positions than those with a man editor or publisher. However, this difference declined over the 30 years of the study.

²⁸Lists were mailed to researchers after they requested them from the national Newspaper Guild headquarters. The list for 1949 was not available, so the researchers used the next available year, which was 1955. Because only one of eight regressions resulted in union representation being statistically significant, this was not seen as a problem.

²⁹Total number of management positions was controlled for because the more positions at a newspaper, the more opportunities for women to have such a position. The number of women in non-newsroom management positions was included because it might represent the existence of an organizational culture that would affect hiring. An organization that hires women in non-newsroom positions perhaps would be more likely to hire women in the newsroom. Group ownership was included because of the reputation some groups, particularly Gannett, have received during the 1980s for promoting women. Guild representation on a staff was examined because the Guild might be active in promoting the interests of its members. The competitive situation was included because these types of markets create uncertainty about the survival of newspapers, which can affect the tendency to undertake other newsroom changes.

³⁰The number of women in management positions in the 128 newspapers with women editors and/or publishers in 1949 was treated as the first stratum, and the 254 randomly drawn newspapers were treated as the second stratum. To estimate the population percentages, the number of newspapers in the first stratum was added to the estimate of the remaining population based on the random sample from the second stratum. The sum of the two strata was then divided by the total number of newspapers for that year. For example, in 1959, 58 of 123 newspapers from the first stratum (five had closed) had women publishers, and 5.3 percent of the random sample had women publishers. The 1,637 newspapers represented in the second stratum were multiplied by 5.3 percent to get an estimate of 86 newspapers with women publishers. The 56 and 86 were added to get the estimate of total newspapers in 1959 with women publishers. The first stratum figures were not multiplied because a census was conducted for the first stratum. The standard error of proportion was based only on the second stratum random sample because the first stratum had no sampling error. The numbers of newspapers in the random samples for the given years were: 1949, 254; 1959, 247: 1969, 238; and 1979, 231. With the finite population correction applied, the standard errors of proportions for the four years were: 1949, 2.2 percent; 1959, 2.3 percent; 1969, 2.3 percent; and 1979, 2.4 percent. Multiplying each of these by 1.96 will give the confidence interval at the 95 percent probability level for estimating the population. In figuring the standard error of proportions, the percentage of the population composed of women managers was assumed to be 20 percent, which was a conservative approach considering the results found here. In figuring the means for the second-level and third-level newsroom managers and all managerial positions, a similar procedure was followed. The mean for the first stratum was multiplied by the percentage of total newspapers it represented and the mean for the second stratum (random sample) was multiplied by the percentage of total newspapers it represented. Then the two were added. For example, in 1969, the 118 first stratum newspapers that were still in business averaged 1.47 women in the second- and third-level newsroom management positions. The 238 newspapers from the random sample that were still in business averaged 1.90 women in these positions. The first stratum newspapers equaled 6.7 percent and the second stratum newspapers (random sample) equaled 93.3 percent of the total 1,758 newspapers in 1969. The averages were multiplied by these percentages and added to give an estimate of the mean numbers for the categories during each of the four years. In 1969, the result was an average of 1.524 women in newsroom managerial positions. Appropriate adjustments were made for the standard error of the mean.

³¹A few variables had positive skewness measures greater than two. Because most of these problems represented the influence of very large newspapers, the eight newspapers with circulations of more than 200,000 in 1949 and 1959 and more than 250,000 in 1969 and 1979 were dropped from the regression equation. This solved most of the skewness problem. However, the two cases that exceeded three standard deviations from the sample mean for women in non-traditional newsroom management positions in 1959 and 1979 were assigned the value of three standard deviations from the mean. The correlation matrix was examined for signs of possible multicollinearity. None of the correlations among independent variables exceeded .52. In addition, variables were multiplied and regressions run to test for interaction among the variables. No interactions were found.

³²Wilson, "Women Make Up," 1988, 14. Part of the difference is due to variation between Jurney's definition of directing editors and the definition used here. We defined a few of her directing editor positions as second- and third-level management.

³³Any underestimation of percentages probably would have been consistent throughout the time period because the same sample was used throughout. The conclusions about trends should not have been affected by any underestimate.

³⁴Unique variance shared between dependent and independent variables is the part correlation squared.

³⁵Karsten Management and Gender, 12.

³⁶Gertrude Jock Robinson, "Women, Media Access and Social Control," Women and the News, Laurily Keir Epstein, ed. (New York: Hastings House, 1978), 87-107

³⁷Jock Robinson, 1978; Terri Schultz-Brooks, "Getting There: Women in the Newsroom," Columbia Journalism Review, March/April, 1984, 25-31, Mills, 1989; Joan Konner, "Are Women in Journalism Making A Difference?" ASNE Bulletin, October 1990, 22-24; Susan Faludi, Backlash: The Undeclared War Against American Women (New York: Crown Publishers, 1991), 46-72; Susan Bianchi-Sand, "Pay Equity: A Top Concern of Women," The Professional Communicator, February/March, 1993, 18-20.

³⁸Karsten, Management and Gender, 12.

³⁹Facts About Newspapers 93, 25.

⁴⁰'88 Facts About Newspapers, 1988.

⁴¹David H. Weaver and G. Cleveland Wilhoit, The American Journalist (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1986), 21.

⁴²Faludi, 1991.

⁴³Amy Saltzman, "Why Women Can't, Won't, Don't Want to, Make It to the Top," U.S. News & World Report (June 17, 1991), 40-48.

⁴⁴Bianchi-Sand, 1993.

⁴⁵Facts About Newspapers 1997, 29.

⁴⁶'88 Facts About Newspapers," 1988.

⁴⁷Facts About Newspapers 1997, 29.